Posts Tagged American Indians

Cree Indians in camp, probably in Montana, ca. 1893

“Only after the last tree has been cut down, Only after the last river has been poisoned, Only after the last fish has been caught, Only then will you find that money cannot be eaten.”

- Cree Indian Prophecy

This 1879 picture details a parade by Rex, an all-male krewe (semi-mythological creature) whose leader is known as the "King of Carnival." The Krewe of Rex established the official Mardi Gras colors of green, gold, and purple.

The earliest date given to the beginning of the Mardi Gras celebration in the United States is 1703. However, New Orleans was not its birth place, it was in fact Mobile, Alabama and was originally called Boef Gras (Fat Beef). [Zim's Side Note: New Orleans was not founded until 1718, fifteen years after the first Mardi Gras celebration.]

Joe Cain dressed as the make-believe Chickasaw chief Slacabamarinico

One of the earliest, well-known celebration occurred in 1830 on New Year’s Eve. It was begun by Michael Krafft and his friends who did not want to end a dinner party. After raiding a nearby hardware store, the group proceeded down the town streets with their stolen rakes, hoes and cowbells and woke the town up. Afterwards, the group formed Moblie’s first modern mystic organization called the Cowbellion de Rakin Society. Ten years later the Cowbellions presented their first parade with floats and a carnival theme.

During the Civil War, Mobile was under Union occupation and city soon became discouraged. The stress of the war had halted the Mardi Gras celebration until 1866 when Joseph Stillwell Cain dressed as “Chief Slacabamorinico” in full Chickasaw Indian regalia. Unbeknown to the Union army as well as the United States Government, Cain was making a political statement with his attire. It was meant to be a reminder that the Chickasaw never surrendered during the war and by suit, the people of Mobile should never surrender as well. Cain revived the celebration for future generations and while donning feathers and a skirt he rode the streets while encouraging the city. He was not punished because the government did not understand the meaning behind his costume. Because of his efforts in reviving Mardi Gras, the Sunday before Mardi Gras Day is called “Joe Cain Day,” where the city dresses in costume and celebrates him.

The date of Easter determines the date of Mardi Gras. Mardi Gras Day also known as “Fat Tuesday,” takes place on the Tuesday before the Ash Wednesday.

Mobile Mardi Gras website.
Carpenter, Allan and Carl Provorse, compl. Facts About the Cities. 2nd ed. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company, 1996, 5.
Photos via TIME and Alabama Heritage.

“Your coming and asking me for my country makes me sad, and your saying I am not able to do anything with my country makes me still more sad.”

- Sleepy Eyes, Dakota Chief, July 19, 1851

Photo source here.

Nancy Ward (1738-1824) was the last “Beloved Woman” of the Cherokees. She earned the “Beloved Woman” title after the Creeks tribe killed her husband, a warrior, during a skirmish. Fighting alongside him, Ward became enraged at the Creeks for his death, and she rallied the Cherokee forces to a decisive victory. For her heroism, she was named “Beloved Woman,” a title reserved for wise women who have distinguished themselves in battle or who have been the wives or mothers of great warriors.

In becoming the “Beloved Woman,” Ward sat in on General Council meetings where she could participate fully, vote and pardon condemned prisoners. Reportedly, she did in fact pardon a prison by the name of Mrs. Bean, a white woman. Not only did Ward nurse Mrs. Bean back to health, she also set her free. Before she left, Mrs. Bean showed Ward the loom weave technique and how to raise dairy cattle. She also headed the Women’s Council and prepared the various ceremonies. In addition, another duty of hers was to act as a negotiator in treaty parlays. While her advancements and dedication to the tribe are highly regarded, she was also the first Cherokee to have African American slaves.

Previously, she had advocated for peaceful relations with the whites, but after years of broken promises, she no longer advised peace. Fearing the impending force removal, she married Bryan Ward, a white innkeeper. They became quite prosperous and she dead in 1824. Her son claimed that when his mother died, a white light ascended from her body and flew into the sacred mound at Chota, located in present-day Monroe County, Tennessee. In the 1970s and 1980s, the mound was destroyed during the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Tellico Dam Project.

The Nancy Ward Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution based in Chattanooga, Tennessee was named after her.

Information
Bataille, Gretchen, ed. Native American Women. New York: Garland Publishing, 1993, 272-273.
Smith, David Ray. “Nancy Ward,” December 25, 2009, found online here.

Wilma Mankiller

The daughter of a full-blood Cherokee father and a Dutch-Irish mother, Wilma Mankiller became the Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. She was the first woman to hold that title.

Her paternal Cherokee ancestors were participants in the 1838-1839 forceful and deadly removal known as the Trail of Tears. In her youth, Mankiller and her family were a part of the federal relocation program aimed at “urbanizing” rural Indians. They relocated to a low-income housing project in San Francisco. Mankiller married and had a family as well as studied sociology at San Francisco State University. In November 1969, students associated with the Red Power Movement famously took over Alcatraz Island and claimed the deserted federal prison land as American Indian land. This event influenced Mankiller into changing the direction of her life. She later wrote, “Every day that passed seemed to give me more self-respect and sense of pride.”

After doing volunteer work among American Indians around San Francisco in the 1970s, Mankiller moved back to Oklahoma and continued to work in communities to further develop the 200,000-members of the Cherokee Nation. After a life-altering car crash in 1979, Mankiller became a more vocal advocate on issues affecting the tribe.

Her National Woman’s Hall of Fame biography describes her rise to the Principal Chef position and the impact she had on social and economic issues.

In 1983 she ran for deputy chief of the Nation, and in 1985 Mankiller became Principal Chief. Mankiller brought about important strides for the Cherokees, including improved health care, education, utilities management and tribal government. Future plans call for attracting higher-paying industry to the area, improving adult literacy, supporting women returning to school and more. Mankiller also lived in the larger world, active in civil rights matters, lobbying the federal government and supporting women’s activities and issues.

In 1998, President Clinton awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Mankiller for her social and economic work with Cherokee Nation.

She battled lymphoma in 1995 and breast cancer in 1999 along with two kidney transplants in 1990 and 1998, Mankiller succumbed to pancreatic cancer on April 6, 2010. At the news of Mankiller’s passing, President Obama released the following statement:

I am deeply saddened to hear of the passing of Wilma Mankiller today.  As the Cherokee Nation’s first female chief, she transformed the Nation-to-Nation relationship between the Cherokee Nation and the Federal Government, and served as an inspiration to women in Indian Country and across America.  A recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, she was recognized for her vision and commitment to a brighter future for all Americans.  Her legacy will continue to encourage and motivate all who carry on her work. Michelle and I offer our condolences to Wilma’s family, especially her husband Charlie and two daughters, Gina and Felicia, as well as the Cherokee Nation and all those who knew her and were touched by her good works.

Further Reading
Lisa, Laurie, “Wilma Mankiller” in Gretchen Bataille, ed. Native American Women. New York: Garland Publishing, 1993, 161.
Nelson, Andrew, “Wilma Mankiller,” Salon, November 20, 2001, found online here.
President Obama’s statement found at the White House website.
Photo and additional information – “Wilma Mankiller,” National Women’s Hall of Fame website.

Yosemite Valley

The Yosemite Valley got its name in 1851 by an expedition battalion that came upon the valley while trying to dispose of the American Indian tribes that settled there. The battalion thought that “Yosemite” was the name the tribes had give the area, but they were mistaken. The tribes called Yosemite Valley, “Ahwahnee” which means, “the place of the gaping mouth” and the tribe’s name was Ahwahneechees. According to the tribal language, “Yosemite” was the word used to describe threatening people and it translates into “among them are killers.”

- Yosemite National Park was the third national park to be signed into law on October 1, 1890.

Clare Marie Hodges, the first female ranger

- In 1918, Clare Marie Hodge became the first woman ranger in Yosemite. World War I had created job shortages all around the country with few men to fill them, so they turned to women. According to the Yosemite website, “[Clare] applied to the superintendent, Washington B. Lewis, and said, ‘Probably you’ll laugh at me, but I want to be a ranger.’ He responded, ‘I beat you to it, young lady. It’s been on my mind for some time to put a woman on one of these patrols.’ Her job consisted of taking the gate receipts from Tuolumne Meadows to park headquarters, an overnight ride on horseback.”

- Yosemite first hit 1 million visitors annually in 1954 and 2 million in 1967. Now the annual visitors average between 3.5 and 4 million.

Further Reading

Yosemite website

Duncan, Dayton. The National Parks: America’s Best Idea. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

[Photos via Yosemite Valley and Clare Marie Hodges]

Facts on the American Bison

Photo by National Geographic

• On the plains, before European settlement and the introduction of horses, American Indians preferred to kill bison by chasing them off cliffs.
• In North America, Bison are the heaviest land animal, average weight varies between 900 to 2,000 pounds.
• It has been reported that bison can jump as high as six feet off the ground.
• Female Bison are call cows while male bison are called bulls.
• According to National Geographic, “[d]uring the 19th century, settlers killed some 50 million bison for food, sport, and to deprive Native Americans of their most important natural asset. The once enormous herds were reduced to only a few hundred animals. Today, bison numbers have rebounded somewhat, and about 200,000 bison live on preserves and ranches where they are raised for their meat.”
• Bison can run up to 40 mph.
• In the wild, the average life span of a bison ranges between 12-20 years. In capitivty this can increase by ten years.